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Rudder : ウィキペディア英語版
A rudder is a primary control surface used to steer a ship, boat, submarine, hovercraft, aircraft, or other conveyance that moves through a fluid medium (generally air or water). On an aircraft the rudder is used primarily to counter adverse yaw and p-factor and is not the primary control used to turn the airplane. A rudder operates by redirecting the fluid past the hull (watercraft) or fuselage, thus imparting a turning or yawing motion to the craft. In basic form, a rudder is a flat plane or sheet of material attached with hinges to the craft's stern, tail, or after end. Often rudders are shaped so as to minimize hydrodynamic or aerodynamic drag. On simple watercraft, a tiller—essentially, a stick or pole acting as a lever arm—may be attached to the top of the rudder to allow it to be turned by a helmsman. In larger vessels, cables, pushrods, or hydraulics may be used to link rudders to steering wheels. In typical aircraft, the rudder is operated by pedals via mechanical linkages or hydraulics.==History of the rudder==Generally, a rudder is "part of the steering apparatus of a boat or ship that is fastened outside the hull", that is denoting all different types of oars, paddles, and rudders.rudder.Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved August 8, 2008, from Encyclopædia Britannica 2006 Ultimate Reference Suite DVD More specifically, the steering gear of ancient vessels can be classified into side-rudders and stern-mounted rudders, depending on their location on the ship. A third term, steering oar, can denote both types. In a Mediterranean context, side-rudders are more specifically called quarter-rudders as the later term designates more exactly the place where the rudder was mounted. Stern-mounted rudders are uniformly suspended at the back of the ship in a central position.William F. Edgerton: “Ancient Egyptian Steering Gear”, ''The American Journal of Semitic Languages and Literatures'', Vol. 43, No. 4. (1927), pp. 255-265R. O. Faulkner: ''Egyptian Seagoing Ships'', ''The Journal of Egyptian Archaeology'', Vol. 26. (1941), pp. 3-9Although Lawrence Mott in his comprehensive treatment of the history of the rudder,(Lawrence V. Mott, ''The Development of the Rudder, A.D. 100-1337: A Technological Tale'', Thesis May 1991, Texas A&M University, p.2f., 92 ) Timothy Runyan,Timothy J. Runyan: “Review of The Development of the Rudder: A Technological Tale“, ''Speculum'', Vol. 74, No. 4, (1999), pp. 1096-1098 (1098) the Encyclopædia Britannica, and The Concise Oxford Dictionary of English Etymology(The Concise Oxford Dictionary of English Etymology ) classify a steering oar as a rudder, Joseph Needham, Lefèbre des Noëttes, K.S. Tom, Chung Chee Kit, S.A.M. Adshead, John K. Fairbank, Merle Goldman, Frank Ross, and Leo Block state that the steering oar used in ancient Egypt and Rome was not a true rudder and define stern-mounted rudder used in China as the true rudder; the steering oar has the capacity to interfere with handling of the sails (limiting any potential for long ocean-going voyages) while it was fit more for small vessels on narrow, rapid-water transport; the rudder did not disturb the handling of the sails, took less energy to operate by its helmsman, was better fit for larger vessels on ocean-going travel, and first appeared in ancient China during the 1st century AD.Tom, K.S. (1989). ''Echoes from Old China: Life, Legends, and Lore of the Middle Kingdom''. Honolulu: The Hawaii Chinese History Center of the University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 0-8248-1285-9. Page 103–104.Adshead, Samuel Adrian Miles. (2000). ''China in World History''. London: MacMillan Press Ltd. New York: St. Martin's Press. ISBN 0-312-22565-2. Page 156.Needham, Joseph. (1986). ''Science and Civilization in China: Volume 4, Physics and Physical Technology, Part 3, Civil Engineering and Nautics''. Taipei: Caves Books Ltd. Pages 627–628.Chung, Chee Kit. (2005). "Longyamen is Singapore: The Final Proof?," in ''Admiral Zheng He & Southeast Asia''. Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies. ISBN 981-230-329-4. Page 152.Fairbank, John K. and Merle Goldman. (1998). ''China: A New History, Enlarged Edition''. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-11673-9. Page 93.Ross, Frank. (1982). ''Oracle Bones, Stars, and Wheelbarrows: Ancient Chinese Science and Technology''. New York: Houghton Mifflin. ISBN 0-395-54967-1.Block, Leo. (2003). ''To Harness the Wind: A Short History of the Development of Sails''. Annapolis: Naval Institute Press. ISBN 1-55750-209-9. Page 123. In regards to the ancient Phoenician (1550–300 BC) use of the steering oar without a rudder in the Mediterranean, Leo Block (2003) writes:A single sail tends to turn a vessel in an upwind or downwind direction, and rudder action is required to steer a straight course. A steering oar was used at this time because the rudder had not yet been invented. With a single sail, a frequent movement of the steering oar was required to steer a straight course; this slowed down the vessel because a steering oar (or rudder) course correction acts like a brake. The second sail, located forward, could be trimmed to offset the turning tendency of the main sail and minimize the need for course corrections by the steering oar, which would have substantially improved sail performance.Block, Leo. (2003). ''To Harness the Wind: A Short History of the Development of Sails''. Annapolis: Naval Institute Press. ISBN 1-55750-209-9. 8–9.

A rudder is a primary control surface used to steer a ship, boat, submarine, hovercraft, aircraft, or other conveyance that moves through a fluid medium (generally air or water). On an aircraft the rudder is used primarily to counter adverse yaw and p-factor and is not the primary control used to turn the airplane. A rudder operates by redirecting the fluid past the hull (watercraft) or fuselage, thus imparting a turning or yawing motion to the craft. In basic form, a rudder is a flat plane or sheet of material attached with hinges to the craft's stern, tail, or after end. Often rudders are shaped so as to minimize hydrodynamic or aerodynamic drag. On simple watercraft, a tiller—essentially, a stick or pole acting as a lever arm—may be attached to the top of the rudder to allow it to be turned by a helmsman. In larger vessels, cables, pushrods, or hydraulics may be used to link rudders to steering wheels. In typical aircraft, the rudder is operated by pedals via mechanical linkages or hydraulics.
==History of the rudder==

Generally, a rudder is "part of the steering apparatus of a boat or ship that is fastened outside the hull", that is denoting all different types of oars, paddles, and rudders.〔rudder.Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved August 8, 2008, from Encyclopædia Britannica 2006 Ultimate Reference Suite DVD〕 More specifically, the steering gear of ancient vessels can be classified into side-rudders and stern-mounted rudders, depending on their location on the ship. A third term, steering oar, can denote both types. In a Mediterranean context, side-rudders are more specifically called quarter-rudders as the later term designates more exactly the place where the rudder was mounted. Stern-mounted rudders are uniformly suspended at the back of the ship in a central position.〔William F. Edgerton: “Ancient Egyptian Steering Gear”, ''The American Journal of Semitic Languages and Literatures'', Vol. 43, No. 4. (1927), pp. 255-265〕〔R. O. Faulkner: ''Egyptian Seagoing Ships'', ''The Journal of Egyptian Archaeology'', Vol. 26. (1941), pp. 3-9〕
Although Lawrence Mott in his comprehensive treatment of the history of the rudder,〔(Lawrence V. Mott, ''The Development of the Rudder, A.D. 100-1337: A Technological Tale'', Thesis May 1991, Texas A&M University, p.2f., 92 )〕 Timothy Runyan,〔Timothy J. Runyan: “Review of The Development of the Rudder: A Technological Tale“, ''Speculum'', Vol. 74, No. 4, (1999), pp. 1096-1098 (1098)〕 the Encyclopædia Britannica,〔 and The Concise Oxford Dictionary of English Etymology〔(The Concise Oxford Dictionary of English Etymology )〕 classify a steering oar as a rudder,〔 Joseph Needham, Lefèbre des Noëttes, K.S. Tom, Chung Chee Kit, S.A.M. Adshead, John K. Fairbank, Merle Goldman, Frank Ross, and Leo Block state that the steering oar used in ancient Egypt and Rome was not a true rudder and define stern-mounted rudder used in China as the true rudder;〔〔〔 the steering oar has the capacity to interfere with handling of the sails (limiting any potential for long ocean-going voyages) while it was fit more for small vessels on narrow, rapid-water transport; the rudder did not disturb the handling of the sails, took less energy to operate by its helmsman, was better fit for larger vessels on ocean-going travel, and first appeared in ancient China during the 1st century AD.〔Tom, K.S. (1989). ''Echoes from Old China: Life, Legends, and Lore of the Middle Kingdom''. Honolulu: The Hawaii Chinese History Center of the University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 0-8248-1285-9. Page 103–104.〕〔Adshead, Samuel Adrian Miles. (2000). ''China in World History''. London: MacMillan Press Ltd. New York: St. Martin's Press. ISBN 0-312-22565-2. Page 156.〕〔Needham, Joseph. (1986). ''Science and Civilization in China: Volume 4, Physics and Physical Technology, Part 3, Civil Engineering and Nautics''. Taipei: Caves Books Ltd. Pages 627–628.〕〔Chung, Chee Kit. (2005). "Longyamen is Singapore: The Final Proof?," in ''Admiral Zheng He & Southeast Asia''. Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies. ISBN 981-230-329-4. Page 152.〕〔Fairbank, John K. and Merle Goldman. (1998). ''China: A New History, Enlarged Edition''. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-11673-9. Page 93.〕〔Ross, Frank. (1982). ''Oracle Bones, Stars, and Wheelbarrows: Ancient Chinese Science and Technology''. New York: Houghton Mifflin. ISBN 0-395-54967-1.〕〔Block, Leo. (2003). ''To Harness the Wind: A Short History of the Development of Sails''. Annapolis: Naval Institute Press. ISBN 1-55750-209-9. Page 123.〕 In regards to the ancient Phoenician (1550–300 BC) use of the steering oar without a rudder in the Mediterranean, Leo Block (2003) writes:
A single sail tends to turn a vessel in an upwind or downwind direction, and rudder action is required to steer a straight course. A steering oar was used at this time because the rudder had not yet been invented. With a single sail, a frequent movement of the steering oar was required to steer a straight course; this slowed down the vessel because a steering oar (or rudder) course correction acts like a brake. The second sail, located forward, could be trimmed to offset the turning tendency of the main sail and minimize the need for course corrections by the steering oar, which would have substantially improved sail performance.〔Block, Leo. (2003). ''To Harness the Wind: A Short History of the Development of Sails''. Annapolis: Naval Institute Press. ISBN 1-55750-209-9. 8–9.〕


抄文引用元・出典: フリー百科事典『 ウィキペディア(Wikipedia)
ウィキペディアで「A rudder is a primary control surface used to steer a ship, boat, submarine, hovercraft, aircraft, or other conveyance that moves through a fluid medium (generally air or water). On an aircraft the rudder is used primarily to counter adverse yaw and p-factor and is not the primary control used to turn the airplane. A rudder operates by redirecting the fluid past the hull (watercraft) or fuselage, thus imparting a turning or yawing motion to the craft. In basic form, a rudder is a flat plane or sheet of material attached with hinges to the craft's stern, tail, or after end. Often rudders are shaped so as to minimize hydrodynamic or aerodynamic drag. On simple watercraft, a tiller—essentially, a stick or pole acting as a lever arm—may be attached to the top of the rudder to allow it to be turned by a helmsman. In larger vessels, cables, pushrods, or hydraulics may be used to link rudders to steering wheels. In typical aircraft, the rudder is operated by pedals via mechanical linkages or hydraulics.==History of the rudder==Generally, a rudder is "part of the steering apparatus of a boat or ship that is fastened outside the hull", that is denoting all different types of oars, paddles, and rudders.rudder.Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved August 8, 2008, from Encyclopædia Britannica 2006 Ultimate Reference Suite DVD More specifically, the steering gear of ancient vessels can be classified into side-rudders and stern-mounted rudders, depending on their location on the ship. A third term, steering oar, can denote both types. In a Mediterranean context, side-rudders are more specifically called quarter-rudders as the later term designates more exactly the place where the rudder was mounted. Stern-mounted rudders are uniformly suspended at the back of the ship in a central position.William F. Edgerton: “Ancient Egyptian Steering Gear”, ''The American Journal of Semitic Languages and Literatures'', Vol. 43, No. 4. (1927), pp. 255-265R. O. Faulkner: ''Egyptian Seagoing Ships'', ''The Journal of Egyptian Archaeology'', Vol. 26. (1941), pp. 3-9Although Lawrence Mott in his comprehensive treatment of the history of the rudder,(Lawrence V. Mott, ''The Development of the Rudder, A.D. 100-1337: A Technological Tale'', Thesis May 1991, Texas A&M University, p.2f., 92 ) Timothy Runyan,Timothy J. Runyan: “Review of The Development of the Rudder: A Technological Tale“, ''Speculum'', Vol. 74, No. 4, (1999), pp. 1096-1098 (1098) the Encyclopædia Britannica, and The Concise Oxford Dictionary of English Etymology(The Concise Oxford Dictionary of English Etymology ) classify a steering oar as a rudder, Joseph Needham, Lefèbre des Noëttes, K.S. Tom, Chung Chee Kit, S.A.M. Adshead, John K. Fairbank, Merle Goldman, Frank Ross, and Leo Block state that the steering oar used in ancient Egypt and Rome was not a true rudder and define stern-mounted rudder used in China as the true rudder; the steering oar has the capacity to interfere with handling of the sails (limiting any potential for long ocean-going voyages) while it was fit more for small vessels on narrow, rapid-water transport; the rudder did not disturb the handling of the sails, took less energy to operate by its helmsman, was better fit for larger vessels on ocean-going travel, and first appeared in ancient China during the 1st century AD.Tom, K.S. (1989). ''Echoes from Old China: Life, Legends, and Lore of the Middle Kingdom''. Honolulu: The Hawaii Chinese History Center of the University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 0-8248-1285-9. Page 103–104.Adshead, Samuel Adrian Miles. (2000). ''China in World History''. London: MacMillan Press Ltd. New York: St. Martin's Press. ISBN 0-312-22565-2. Page 156.Needham, Joseph. (1986). ''Science and Civilization in China: Volume 4, Physics and Physical Technology, Part 3, Civil Engineering and Nautics''. Taipei: Caves Books Ltd. Pages 627–628.Chung, Chee Kit. (2005). "Longyamen is Singapore: The Final Proof?," in ''Admiral Zheng He & Southeast Asia''. Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies. ISBN 981-230-329-4. Page 152.Fairbank, John K. and Merle Goldman. (1998). ''China: A New History, Enlarged Edition''. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-11673-9. Page 93.Ross, Frank. (1982). ''Oracle Bones, Stars, and Wheelbarrows: Ancient Chinese Science and Technology''. New York: Houghton Mifflin. ISBN 0-395-54967-1.Block, Leo. (2003). ''To Harness the Wind: A Short History of the Development of Sails''. Annapolis: Naval Institute Press. ISBN 1-55750-209-9. Page 123. In regards to the ancient Phoenician (1550–300 BC) use of the steering oar without a rudder in the Mediterranean, Leo Block (2003) writes:A single sail tends to turn a vessel in an upwind or downwind direction, and rudder action is required to steer a straight course. A steering oar was used at this time because the rudder had not yet been invented. With a single sail, a frequent movement of the steering oar was required to steer a straight course; this slowed down the vessel because a steering oar (or rudder) course correction acts like a brake. The second sail, located forward, could be trimmed to offset the turning tendency of the main sail and minimize the need for course corrections by the steering oar, which would have substantially improved sail performance.Block, Leo. (2003). ''To Harness the Wind: A Short History of the Development of Sails''. Annapolis: Naval Institute Press. ISBN 1-55750-209-9. 8–9.」の詳細全文を読む



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