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A troubadour (, ; (オック語:trobador), ) was a composer and performer of Old Occitan lyric poetry during the High Middle Ages (1100–1350). Since the word ''troubadour'' is etymologically masculine, a female troubadour is usually called a trobairitz. The troubadour school or tradition began in the late 11th century in Occitania, but it subsequently spread into Italy and Spain. Under the influence of the troubadours, related movements sprang up throughout Europe: the Minnesang in Germany, ''trovadorismo'' in Galicia and Portugal, and that of the trouvères in northern France. Dante Alighieri in his ''De vulgari eloquentia'' defined the troubadour lyric as ''fictio rethorica musicaque poita'': rhetorical, musical, and poetical fiction. After the "classical" period around the turn of the 13th century and a mid-century resurgence, the art of the troubadours declined in the 14th century and eventually died out around the time of the Black Death (1348). The texts of troubadour songs deal mainly with themes of chivalry and courtly love. Most were metaphysical, intellectual, and formulaic. Many were humorous or vulgar satires. Works can be grouped into three styles: the ''trobar leu'' (light), ''trobar ric'' (rich), and ''trobar clus'' (closed). Likewise there were many genres, the most popular being the ''canso'', but ''sirventes'' and ''tensos'' were especially popular in the post-classical period, in Italy and among the female troubadours, the trobairitz. ==Etymology of name== The oldest mention of the word "troubadour" as ''trobadors'' is found in a 12th-century Occitan text by Cercamon. The English word ''troubadour'' is an exact rendition from a French word first recorded in 1575 in an historical context to mean "langue d'oc poet at the court in the 12th and 13th century" (Jean de Nostredame, ''Vies des anciens Poètes provençaux'', p. 14 in Gdf. Compl.).〔(Site of the CNRTL : etymology of “troubadour" (French) )〕 The French word is borrowed itself from the Occitan word ''trobador''. It is the oblique case of the nominative ''trobaire'' “composer", related to ''trobar'' “to compose, to discuss, to invent" (Wace, ''Brut'', editions I. Arnold, 3342) It may come from the hypothetical Late Latin *''tropāre'' “to compose, to invent a poem" by regular phonetic change. This recreated form is deduced from the Latin root ''tropus'', meaning a trope and the various meanings of the Old Occitan related words. In turn, the Latin word derives ultimately from Greek ''τρόπος'' (''tropos''), meaning "turn, manner".〔Chaytor, (Part 1. )〕 B Intervocal Latin () shifted regularly to () in Occitan (cf. Latin ''sapere'' > Occitan ''saber'' “to know") (cf. Latin ''sapere'' > ''savoir''). The Latin suffix ''-ātor'', ''-atōris'' explains the Occitan suffix, according to its declension and accentuation : Gallo-Romance *TROPĀTOR〔Jacques Allières, ''La formation de la langue française'', coll. Que sais-je ?, éditions PUF, 1982, p. 49. 2) Imparisyllabiques β) Mots en -OR -ŌRE.〕 > Occitan ''trobaire'' (subject case) and *TROPATŌRE〔ALLIÈRES 49.〕 > Occitan ''trobador'' « troubadour » (oblique case). There is an alternative theory to explain the meaning of ''trobar'' as “to compose, to discuss, to invent". It has the support of some historians, specialists of literature and musicologists to justify of the troubadours' origins in Arabic Andalusian musical practices. According to them, the Arabic word ''ṭaraba'' “song" (from the triliteral root Ṭ-R-B “provoke emotion, excitement, agitation; make music, entertain by singing") could partly be the etymon of the verb ''trobar''.〔Maria Rosa Menocal (1985), ("Pride and Prejudice in Medieval Studies: European and Oriental" ), ''Hispanic Review'', 53:1, 61–78.〕 Another Arabic root had already been proposed before : Ḍ-R-B “strike", by extension “play a musical instrument".〔(Richard Lemay, « À propos de l'origine arabe de l'art des troubadours », ''Annales. Économies, sociétés, civilisations'', vol. 21, n°5, 1966, p. 991 (French) )〕 They entertain the possibility that the nearly homophonous Ḍ-R-B root may have contributed to the sense of the newly coined Romance verb ''trobar''. Some proponents of this theory argue, only on cultural grounds, that both etymologies may well be correct, and that there may have been a conscious poetic exploitation of the phonological coincidence between ''trobar'' and the triliteral Arabic root TRB when Sufi Islamic musical forms with a love theme first spread from Al-Andalus to southern France. It has also been pointed out that the concepts of "finding", "music", "love", and "ardour"—the precise semantic field attached to the word troubadour—are allied in Arabic under a single root (WJD) that plays a major role in Sufic discussions of music, and that the word troubadour may in part reflect this.〔See Idries Shah, ''The Sufis''.〕 Nevertheless, the linguistic facts do not support an hypothetical theory : the word ''trover'' is mentioned in French as soon as the 10th century before ''trobar'' in Occitan (see above) and the word ''trovere'' > ''trouvère'' appears almost simultaneously in French as ''trobador'' in Occitan (see above). In archaic and classical troubadour poetry, the word is only used in a mocking sense, having more or less the meaning of "somebody who makes things up". Cercamon writes: :''Ist trobador, entre ver e mentir,'' :''Afollon drutz e molhers et espos,'' :''E van dizen qu'Amors vay en biays'' ::(These troubadours, between truth and lies/corrupt lovers, women and husbands,/ and keep saying that Love proceeds obliquely).〔''Puois nostre temps comens'a brunezir''; read the whole text (here )〕 Peire d'Alvernha also begins his famous mockery of contemporary authors ''cantarai d'aquest trobadors'',〔read the whole text (here )〕 after which he proceeds to explain why none of them is worth anything. When referring to themselves seriously, troubadours almost invariably use the word "chantaire" (singer). 抄文引用元・出典: フリー百科事典『 ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』 ■ウィキペディアで「troubadour」の詳細全文を読む スポンサード リンク
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