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Semiotics (also called semiotic studies; not to be confused with the Saussurean tradition called semiology which is a part of semiotics) is the study of meaning-making, the study of sign processes and meaningful communication.〔"The science of communication studied through the interpretation of signs and symbols as they operate in various fields, esp. language", ''Oxford English Dictionary'' (2003)〕 This includes the study of signs and sign processes (semiosis), indication, designation, likeness, analogy, metaphor, symbolism, signification, and communication. Semiotics is closely related to the field of linguistics, which, for its part, studies the structure and meaning of language more specifically. The semiotic tradition explores the study of signs and symbols as a significant part of communications. As different from linguistics, however, semiotics also studies non-linguistic sign systems. Semiotics is often divided into three branches: * Semantics: relation between signs and the things to which they refer; their signified ''denotata'', or meaning * Syntactics: relations among or between signs in formal structures * Pragmatics: relation between signs and sign-using agents or interpreters Semiotics is frequently seen as having important anthropological dimensions; for example, Umberto Eco proposes that every cultural phenomenon may be studied as communication. Some semioticians focus on the logical dimensions of the science, however. They examine areas belonging also to the life sciences—such as how organisms make predictions about, and adapt to, their semiotic niche in the world (see semiosis). In general, semiotic theories take ''signs'' or sign systems as their object of study: the communication of information in living organisms is covered in biosemiotics (including zoosemiotics). Syntactics is the branch of semiotics that deals with the formal properties of signs and symbols.〔The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language: (Syntactics )〕 More precisely, syntactics deals with the "rules that govern how words are combined to form phrases and sentences".〔(Wiktionary.org )〕 Charles Morris adds that semantics deals with the relation of signs to their designata and the objects that they may or do denote; and, pragmatics deals with the biotic aspects of semiosis, that is, with all the psychological, biological, and sociological phenomena that occur in the functioning of signs. ==Terminology== The term derives from the Greek σημειωτικός ''sēmeiōtikos'', "observant of signs",〔(σημειωτικός ), Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, ''A Greek-English Lexicon'', on Perseus〕 (from σημεῖον ''sēmeion'', "a sign, a mark",〔(σημεῖον ), Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, ''A Greek-English Lexicon'', on Perseus〕) and it was first used in English by Henry Stubbes〔Stubbe, H.,''The Plus Ultra reduced to a Non Plus'' ... (London, England, 1670), page 75: "... nor is there any thing to be relied upon in Physick, but an exact knowledge of medicinal phisiology (founded on observation, not principles), semeiotics, method of curing, and tried (not excogitated, not commanding) medicines ...."〕 (spelt ''semeiotics'') in a very precise sense to denote the branch of medical science relating to the interpretation of signs.〔"The branch of medical science relating to the interpretation of symptoms", ''Oxford English Dictionary'' (1989)〕〔For the Greeks, "signs" occurred in the world of nature, "symbols" in the world of culture. Not until Augustine of Hippo would a thematic proposal for uniting the two under the notion of "sign" (''signum'') as transcending the nature-culture divide and identifying symbols as no more than a species (or sub-species) of ''signum'' be formally proposed. See the monograph study on this question, ''Le teorie del segno nell’antichità classica'' by Giovanni Manetti (Milan: Bompiani, 1987); trans. by Christine Richardson as ''Theories of the Sign in Classical Antiquity'' (Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press, 1993). Classic also is the article by Luigi Romeo, "The Derivation of ‘Semiotics’ through the History of the Discipline", in ''Semiosis'' 6, Heft 2 (1977), 37–49. See also Andrew LaVelle’s discussion of Romeo on Peirce-l at ().〕 John Locke used the term ''sem(e)iotike'' in book four, chapter 21 of ''An Essay Concerning Human Understanding'' (1690).〔Locke used the Greek word σημιωτική in the (4th ed. of 1700 ) (p. 437) of his ''Essay concerning Human Understanding''. He notably writes both (a) "σημιωτικὴ" and (b) "Σημιωτική"—when term (a) is followed by any kind of punctuation mark, it takes the form (b); see ''Ancient Greek accent''. The 1689/1690 first edition of Locke’s ''Essay concerning Human Understanding'', in the concluding "Division of the Sciences" chapter, Locke introduces, in §4, "σημιωτική" as his proposed name synonymous with "''the Doctrine of Signs''" for the development of the future study of the ubiquitous role of signs within human awareness. In the 1689-1690 original edition, the "Division of the Sciences" chapter was Chapter XX. In the 4th ed. of 1700, a new Chapter XIX "Of Enthusiasm" is inserted into Book IV, after which the Chapter XX of the 1st ed. becomes Chapter XXI for all subsequent editions. — see in John Deely, ''Why Semiotics?'' (Ottawa: Legas, 2004), 71–88, esp. 77–80 for the editions of Locke’s ''Essay'' from 1689 through 1716. It is an important fact that Locke’s proposal for the development of semiotics, with three passing exceptions as "asides" in the writings of Berkeley, Leibniz, and Condillac, "is met with a resounding silence that lasts as long as modernity itself. Even Locke’s devoted late modern editor, Alexander Campbell Fraser, dismisses out of hand ‘this crude and superficial scheme of Locke’" (see "Locke’s modest proposal subversive of the way of ideas, its reception, and its bearing on the resolution of an ancient and a modern controversy in logic" in Chap. 14 of Deely’s ''Four Ages of Understanding'', pp. 591–606). In the 1975 Oxford University Press critical edition, prepared and introduced by Peter Harold Nidditch, Nidditch tells us, in his "Foreword", p. vii, that he presents us with "a complete, critically established, and unmodernized text that aims at being historically faithful to Locke’s final intentions"; p. xxv tells us further that "the present text is based on the original fourth edition of the ''Essay''", and that "readings in the other early authorized editions are adopted, in appropriate form, where necessary, and recorded otherwise in the textual notes". The term "σημιωτική" appears in that 1700 4th edition, the last published (but not the last prepared) within Locke’s lifetime, with exactly the spelling and final accent found in the 1689/1690 1st edition. Yet if we turn to (the final) chapter XXI of the 1975 Oxford edition, we find on p. 720 not "σημιωτικὴ" but rather do we find substituted the "σημειωτικὴ" spelling (and with final accent reversed). (Note that in Modern Greek and in some systems for pronouncing classical Greek, "σημιωτική" and "σημειωτική" are pronounced the same.)〕〔Prior to Locke, the notion of "sign" as transcending the nature/culture divide was introduced by Augustine of Hippo—see John Deely, ''Augustine & Poinsot: The Protosemiotic Development'' (Scranton: University of Scranton Press, 2009) for full details of Augustine’s originality on this point—a specialized study was firmly established. Himself a man of medicine, Locke was familiar with this "semeiotics" as naming a specialized branch within medical science. In his personal library were two editions of Scapula’s 1579 abridgement of Henricus Stephanus’ ''Thesaurus Graecae Linguae'', which listed σημειωτική as the name for "diagnostics", the branch of medicine concerned with interpreting symptoms of disease ("symptomatology"). Indeed the English physician and scholar Henry Stubbes had transliterated this term of specialized science into English precisely as "semeiotic" in his 1670 work, ''The Plus Ultra Reduced to a Non Plus'' (p. 75).〕 Here he explains how science may be divided into three parts: Locke then elaborates on the nature of this third category, naming it Σημειωτική (''Semeiotike'') and explaining it as "the doctrine of signs" in the following terms: In the nineteenth century, Charles Sanders Peirce defined what he termed "semiotic" (which he sometimes spelled as "semeiotic") as the "quasi-necessary, or formal doctrine of signs", which abstracts "what must be the characters of all signs used by... an intelligence capable of learning by experience",〔Peirce, C.S., ''Collected Papers of Charles Sanders Peirce'', vol. 2, paragraph 227.〕 and which is philosophical logic pursued in terms of signs and sign processes.〔Peirce, C.S. (1902), "Logic, Considered as Semeiotic", Manuscript L75, (transcription ) at ''Arisbe: The Peirce Gateway'', and, in particular, its "On the Definition of Logic" (Memoir 12), (transcription ) at ''Arisbe''.〕〔Peircean semiotic is triadic (sign, object, interpretant), as opposed to the dyadic Saussurian tradition (signifier, signified), and is conceived of as philosophical logic studied in terms of signs that are not always linguistic or artificial, and sign processes, modes of inference, and the inquiry process in general, with emphases not only on symbols but also on signs that are semblances ("icons") and signs that are signs by being factually connected ("indices") to their objects.〕 The Peirce scholar and editor Max H. Fisch〔Max Fisch compiled Peirce-related bibliographical supplements in 1952, 1964, 1966, 1974; was consulting editor on the 1977 microfilm of Peirce's published works and on the ''Comprehensive Bibliography'' associated with it; was among the main editors of the first five volumes (published 1981–1993) ''Writings of Charles S. Peirce''; and wrote a number of published articles on Peirce, many collected in 1986 in ''Peirce, Semeiotic, and Pragmatism'', Ketner and Kloesel, eds., Indiana University Press: (catalog page ), Bloomington, IN, 480 pages. See Charles Sanders Peirce bibliography.〕 claimed in 1978〔Fisch, Max H. (1978), "Peirce’s General Theory of Signs" in ''Sight, Sound, and Sense'', ed. T. A. Sebeok. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, pp. 31–70.〕 that "semeiotic" was Peirce's own preferred rendering of Locke's σημιωτική. Charles Morris followed Peirce in using the term "semiotic" and in extending the discipline beyond human communication to animal learning and use of signals. Ferdinand de Saussure, however, founded his semiotics, which he called semiology, in the social sciences: While the Saussurean semiotic is dyadic (sign/syntax, signal/semantics), the Peircean semiotic is triadic (sign, object, interpretant), being conceived as philosophical logic studied in terms of signs that are not always linguistic or artificial. The Peircean semiotic addresses not only the external communication mechanism, as per Saussure, but the internal representation machine, investigating not just sign processes, or modes of inference, but the whole inquiry process in general. Peircean semiotics further subdivides each of the three triadic elements into three sub-types. For example, signs can be icons, indices, and symbols. Yuri Lotman introduced Eastern Europe to semiotics and adopted Locke’s coinage as the name to subtitle (''Σημειωτική'') his founding at the University of Tartu in Estonia in 1964 of the first semiotics journal, ''Sign Systems Studies''. Thomas Sebeok assimilated "semiology" to "semiotics" as a part to a whole,〔The whole anthology, ''Frontiers in Semiotics'', was devoted to the documentation of this ''pars pro toto'' move of Sebeok.〕 and was involved in choosing the name ''Semiotica'' for the first international journal devoted to the study of signs. 抄文引用元・出典: フリー百科事典『 ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』 ■ウィキペディアで「semiotics」の詳細全文を読む スポンサード リンク
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