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Dené–Caucasian is a proposed broad language family that includes the Sino-Tibetan, North Caucasian, Na-Dené, Yeniseian, Vasconic (including Basque), and Burushaski language families. A connection specifically between Na-Dené and Yeniseian was proposed by Edward Vajda in 2008, and has met with some acceptance. The validity of the rest of the family, however, is rejected or viewed as doubtful by most historical linguists.〔Campbell, Lyle (1997). ''American Indian Languages: The Historical Linguistics of Native America''. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 286-288〕〔Goddard, Ives (1996). "The Classification of the Native Languages of North America". In Ives Goddard, ed., "Languages". Vol. 17 of William Sturtevant, ed., ''Handbook of North American Indians''. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution. pg. 318〕〔Trask, R. L. (2000). ''The Dictionary of Historical and Comparative Linguistics''. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. pg. 85〕〔Dalby, Andrew (1998). ''Dictionary of Languages''. New York: Columbia University Press. pg. 434〕 ==History of the hypothesis== Classifications similar to Dené–Caucasian were put forward in the 20th century by Alfredo Trombetti, Edward Sapir, Robert Bleichsteiner, Karl Bouda, E. J. Furnée, René Lafon, Robert Shafer, Olivier Guy Tailleur, Morris Swadesh, Vladimir N. Toporov, and other scholars. Morris Swadesh included all of the members of Dené–Caucasian in a family that he called "Basque-Dennean" (when writing in English, 2006/1971: 223) or "''vascodene''" (when writing in Spanish, 1959: 114). It was named for Basque and Navajo, the languages at its geographic extremes. According to Swadesh (1959: 114), it included "Vasconic, the Caucasian languages, Ural-Altaic, Dravidian, Tibeto-Burman, Chinese, Austronesian, Japanese, Chukchi (Siberia), Eskimo-Aleut, Wakash, and Na-Dene", and possibly "Sumerian".〔http://books.google.com/books?id=IYQkVkdsKXgC&pg=PA114&lpg=PA114&dq=macro-quechua+swadesh&source=bl&ots=2fOoSr52ja&sig=fQvPv1D9lW7LU2zDQLj5bdQ2LYg&hl=en&ei=eGuGS6iiLYyM0gSG0uHTCw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=10&ved=0CCkQ6AEwCQ#v=onepage&q=&f=false〕 Swadesh's Basque-Dennean thus differed from Dené-Caucasian in including (1) Uralic, Altaic, Japanese, Chukotian, and Eskimo-Aleut (languages which are classed as Eurasiatic by the followers of Sergei Starostin and those of Joseph Greenberg), (2) Dravidian, which is classed as Nostratic by Starostin's school, and (3) Austronesian (which according to Starostin is indeed related to Dené-Caucasian, but only at the next stage up, which he termed Dené-Daic, and only via Austric (see Borean languages)). Swadesh's colleague Mary Haas attributes the origin of the Basque-Dennean hypothesis to Edward Sapir. In the 1980s, Sergei Starostin, using strict linguistic methods (proposing regular phonological correspondences, reconstructions, glottochronology, etc.), became the first to put the idea that the Caucasian, Yeniseian and Sino-Tibetan languages are related on firmer ground.〔See Starostin 1984, Starostin 1991〕 In 1991, Sergei L. Nikolayev added the Na-Dené languages to Starostin's classification.〔See Nikola(y)ev 1991〕 The inclusion of the Na-Dené languages has been somewhat complicated by the ongoing dispute over whether Haida belongs to the family. The proponents of the Dené–Caucasian hypothesis incline towards supporters of Haida's membership in Na-Dené, such as Heinz-Jürgen Pinnow〔See Pinnow 1985a, Pinnow 1985b, Pinnow 1986a, Pinnow 1986b, Pinnow 1988, Pinnow 1990a, Pinnow 1990b〕 or, most recently, John Enrico.〔See Enrico 2004〕 Edward J. Vajda, who otherwise rejects the Dené–Caucasian hypothesis, has suggested that Tlingit, Eyak, and the Athabaskan languages are closely related to the Yeniseian languages, but he denies any genetic relationship of the former three to Haida.〔See Vajda 2000a, Vajda 2000b, Vajda 2000c, Vajda 2000d, Vajda 2000e, Vajda 2001a, Vajda 2001b, Vajda 2002, Vajda 2004〕 Vajda's ideas on the relationship of Athabaskan–Eyak–Tlingit and Yeniseian have found support independently in works of various authors, including Heinrich K. Werner〔See Werner 2004〕 or Merritt Ruhlen.〔See Ruhlen 1998〕 DNA analyses have not shown any special connection between the modern Ket population and the modern speakers of the Na-Dené languages.〔See Rubicz et al. 2002〕 In 1996, John D. Bengtson added the Vasconic languages (including Basque, its extinct relative or ancestor Aquitanian, and possibly Iberian), and in 1997 he proposed the inclusion of Burushaski. The same year, in his article for ''Mother Tongue'', Bengtson concluded that Sumerian might have been a remnant of a distinct subgroup of the Dené–Caucasian languages.〔See Bengtson 1996, Bengtson 1997, Bengtson 1997〕 However, two other papers on the genetic affinity of Sumerian appeared in the same volume: while Allan R. Bomhard considered Sumerian to be a sister of Nostratic, Igor M. Diakonoff compared it to the Munda languages.〔See Bomhard 1997, Diakonoff 1997〕 In 1998, Vitaly V. Shevoroshkin rejected the Amerind affinity of the Almosan (Algonquian-Wakashan) languages, suggesting instead that they had a relationship with Dené–Caucasian. Several years later, he offered a number of lexical and phonological correspondences between the North Caucasian, Salishan, and Wakashan languages, concluding that Salishan and Wakashan may represent a distinct branch of North Caucasian and that their separation from it must postdate the dissolution of the Northeast Caucasian unity (Avar-Andi-Tsezian), which took place around the 2nd or 3rd millennium BC.〔See Shevoroshkin 1998, Shevoroshkin 2003, and Shevoroshkin 2004〕 抄文引用元・出典: フリー百科事典『 ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』 ■ウィキペディアで「Dené–Caucasian languages」の詳細全文を読む スポンサード リンク
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