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A chromosome (''chromo-'' + ''-some'') is a packaged and organized structure containing most of the DNA of a living organism. It is not usually found on its own, but rather is structured by being wrapped around protein complexes called nucleosomes, which consist of histones. The DNA in chromosomes is also associated with transcription (copying of genetic sequences) factors and several other macromolecules. During most of the duration of the Cell cycle, a chromosome consists of one long double-stranded DNA molecule (with associated proteins). During S phase, the chromosome gets replicated, resulting in an 'X'-shaped structure called a metaphase chromosome. Both the original and the newly copied DNA are now called chromatids. The two "sister" chromatids join together at a protein junction called a centromere. Chromosomes are normally visible under a light microscope only when the cell is undergoing mitosis. Even then, the full chromosome containing both joined sister chromatids becomes visible only during a sequence of mitosis known as metaphase (when chromosomes align together, attached to the mitotic spindle and prepare to divide). This DNA and its associated proteins and macromolecules is collectively known as chromatin, which is further packaged along with its associated molecules into a discrete structure called a nucleosome. Chromatin is present in most cells, with a few exceptions - erythrocytes for example. Occurring only in the nucleus of eukaryotic cells, chromatin composes the vast majority of all DNA, except for a small amount inherited maternally which is found in mitochondria. In prokaryotic cells, chromatin occurs free-floating in cytoplasm, as these cells lack organelles and a defined nucleus. Bacteria also lack histones. The main information-carrying macromolecule is a single piece of coiled double-stranded DNA, containing many genes, regulatory elements and other noncoding DNA. The DNA-bound macromolecules are proteins, which serve to package the DNA and control its functions. Chromosomes vary widely between different organisms. Some species such as certain bacteria also contain plasmids or other extrachromosomal DNA. These are circular structures in the cytoplasm which contain cellular DNA and play a role in horizontal gene transfer.〔 Compaction of the duplicated chromosomes during cell division (mitosis or meiosis) results either in a four-arm structure (pictured to the right) if the centromere is located in the middle of the chromosome or a two-arm structure if the centromere is located near one of the ends. Chromosomal recombination during meiosis and subsequent sexual reproduction plays a vital role in genetic diversity. If these structures are manipulated incorrectly, through processes known as chromosomal instability and translocation, the cell may undergo mitotic catastrophe and die, or it may unexpectedly evade apoptosis leading to the progression of cancer. In prokaryotes (see nucleoids) and viruses,〔 the DNA is often densely packed and organized. In the case of archaea by homologs to eukaryotic histones, in the case of bacteria by histone-like proteins. Small circular genomes called plasmids are often found in bacteria and also in mitochondria and chloroplasts, reflecting their bacterial origins. == History of discovery == The word ''chromosome'' comes from the Greek (''chroma'', "colour") and (''soma'', "body"). Chromatin and chromosomes are both very strongly stained by particular dyes. Schleiden,〔 Virchow and Bütschli were among the first scientists who recognized the structures now so familiar to everyone as chromosomes.〔Fokin, S.I. (2013). "Otto Bütschli (1848–1920): Where we will genuflect?" ''Protistology'', 8 (1), 22–35, ().〕 The term was coined by von Waldeyer-Hartz,〔Waldeyer-Hartz, "Über Karyokinese und ihre Beziehungen zu den Befruchtungsvorgängen," ''Archiv für mikroskopische Anatomie und Entwicklungsmechanik'', 1888, 32: 27.〕 referring to the term chromatin, which was introduced by Walther Flemming. In a series of experiments beginning in the mid-1880s, Theodor Boveri gave the definitive demonstration that chromosomes are the vectors of heredity. His two principles were the ''continuity'' of chromosomes and the ''individuality'' of chromosomes. It is the second of these principles that was so original. Wilhelm Roux suggested that each chromosome carries a different genetic load. Boveri was able to test and confirm this hypothesis. Aided by the rediscovery at the start of the 1900s of Gregor Mendel's earlier work, Boveri was able to point out the connection between the rules of inheritance and the behaviour of the chromosomes. Boveri influenced two generations of American cytologists: Edmund Beecher Wilson, Walter Sutton and Theophilus Painter were all influenced by Boveri (Wilson and Painter actually worked with him). In his famous textbook ''The Cell in Development and Heredity'', Wilson linked together the independent work of Boveri and Sutton (both around 1902) by naming the chromosome theory of inheritance the Boveri–Sutton chromosome theory (the names are sometimes reversed).〔Wilson, E.B. (1925). ''The Cell in Development and Heredity'', Ed. 3. Macmillan, New York. p. 923.〕 Ernst Mayr remarks that the theory was hotly contested by some famous geneticists: William Bateson, Wilhelm Johannsen, Richard Goldschmidt and T.H. Morgan, all of a rather dogmatic turn of mind. Eventually, complete proof came from chromosome maps in Morgan's own lab.〔Mayr, E. (1982). ''The growth of biological thought''. Harvard. p. 749.〕 The number of human chromosomes was published in 1923 by Theophilus Painter. By inspection through the microscope he counted 24 pairs which would mean 48 chromosomes. His error was copied by others and it was not until 1956 that the true number, 46, was determined by Indonesia-born cytogeneticist Joe Hin Tjio.〔 〕 抄文引用元・出典: フリー百科事典『 ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』 ■ウィキペディアで「Chromosome」の詳細全文を読む スポンサード リンク
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