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Ceramography
Ceramography is the art and science of preparation, examination and evaluation of ceramic microstructures.〔R.E. Chinn, ''Ceramography'', ASM International and the American Ceramic Society, 2002, p 1.〕 Ceramography can be thought of as the metallography of ceramics. The microstructure is the structure level of approximately 0.1 to 100 µm, between the minimum wavelength of visible light and the resolution limit of the naked eye. The microstructure includes most grains, secondary phases, grain boundaries, pores, micro-cracks and hardness microindentions. Most bulk mechanical, optical, thermal, electrical and magnetic properties are significantly affected by the microstructure. The fabrication method and process conditions are generally indicated by the microstructure. The root cause of many ceramic failures is evident in the microstructure. Ceramography is part of the broader field of materialography, which includes all the microscopic techniques of material analysis, such as metallography, petrography and plastography. Ceramography is usually reserved for high-performance ceramics for industrial applications, such as 85–99.9% alumina (Al2O3) in Fig. 1, zirconia (ZrO2), silicon carbide (SiC), silicon nitride (Si3N4), and ceramic-matrix composites. It is seldom used on whiteware ceramics such as sanitaryware, wall tiles and dishware.
Image:Etch_A999.jpg|Fig. 1: Thermally etched 99.9% alumina
Image:Thin_A999.jpg|Fig. 2: Thin section of 99.9% alumina
== A brief history of ceramography ==
Ceramography evolved along with other branches of materialography and ceramic engineering. Alois de Widmanstätten of Austria etched a meteorite in 1808 to reveal proeutectoid ferrite bands that grew on prior austenite grain boundaries. Geologist Henry Clifton Sorby, the "father of metallography," applied petrographic techniques to the steel industry in the 1860s in Sheffield, England.〔C.S. Smith, ''A History of Metallography'', University of Chicago Press, 1960, p 169–185.〕 French geologist Auguste Michel-Lévy devised a chart that correlated the optical properties of minerals to their transmitted color and thickness in the 1880s. Swedish metallurgist J.A. Brinell invented the first quantitative hardness scale in 1900.〔V.E. Lysaght, ''Indentation Hardness Testing'', Reinhold Publishing Corp., 1949, p 17–18.〕 Smith and Sandland developed the first microindention hardness test at Vickers Ltd. in London in 1922.〔R.L. Smith and G.E. Sandland, “An Accurate Method of Determining the Hardness of Metals, with Particular Reference to Those of a High Degree of Hardness,” ''Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers'', Vol. I, 1922, p 623–641.〕 Swiss-born microscopist A.I. Buehler started the first metallographic equipment manufacturer near Chicago in 1936. Frederick Knoop and colleagues at the National Bureau of Standards developed a less-penetrating (than Vickers) microindention test in 1939.〔F. Knoop, C.G. Peters and W.B. Emerson, “A Sensitive Pyramidal-Diamond Tool for Indentation Measurements,” ''Journal of Research of the National Bureau of Standards'', V23 #1, July 1939, Research Paper RP1220, p 39–61.〕 Struers A/S of Copenhagen introduced the electrolytic polisher to metallography in 1943. George Kehl of Columbia University wrote a book that was considered the bible of materialography until the 1980s.〔G.L. Kehl, ''The Principles of Metallographic Laboratory Practice'', McGraw–Hill Book Co., 1939, 1943 & 1949 (three editions).〕 Kehl co-founded a group within the Atomic Energy Commission that became the International Metallographic Society〔(International Metallographic Society )〕 in 1967.
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