|
Racism consists of ideologies and practices that seek to justify, or cause, the unequal distribution of privileges or rights among different racial groups. Modern variants are often based in social perceptions of biological differences between peoples. These can take the form of social actions, practices or beliefs, or political systems that consider different races to be ranked as inherently superior or inferior to each other, based on presumed shared inheritable traits, abilities, or qualities. It may also hold that members of different races should be treated differently.〔(Racism ) Oxford Dictionaries〕〔"Racism" in R. Schefer. 2008 Encyclopedia of Race, Ethnicity and Society. SAGE. p. 1113〕 Among the questions of how to define racism, is whether to include forms of discrimination that are unintentional, such as making assumptions about preferences or abilities of others based on racial stereotypes, whether to include symbolic or institutionalized forms of discrimination such as the circulation of ethnic stereotypes through the media, or whether to include the sociopolitical dynamics of social stratification that sometimes have a racial component. In sociology and psychology, some definitions include only consciously malignant forms of discrimination. Some definitions of racism also include discriminatory behaviors and beliefs based on cultural, national, ethnic, caste, or religious stereotypes.〔〔 One view holds that racism is best understood as 'prejudice plus power' because without the support of political or economic power, prejudice would not be able to manifest as a pervasive cultural, institutional or social phenomenon.〔Operario, Don and Susan T. Fiske (1998). Racism equals power plus prejudice: A social psychological equation for racial oppression. Pp. 33-53 in Jennifer Lynn Eberhardt and Susan T Fiske (eds), ''Confronting racism: The problem and the response''. Thousand Oaks, CA, US: Sage Publications, Inc.〕〔(【引用サイトリンク】title="Only White People can be Racist: What does Power have to do with Prejudice?" - Sawrikar - Cosmopolitan Civil Societies: An Interdisciplinary Journal )〕 While race and ethnicity are considered to be separate phenomena in contemporary social science, the two terms have a long history of equivalence in popular usage and older social science literature. ''Racism'' and ''racial discrimination'' are often used to describe discrimination on an ethnic or cultural basis, independent of whether these differences are described as racial. According to the United Nations convention, there is no distinction between the terms ''racial discrimination'' and ''ethnic discrimination,'' superiority based on racial differentiation is scientifically false, morally condemnable, socially unjust and dangerous, and there is no justification for racial discrimination, in theory or in practice, anywhere.〔(【引用サイトリンク】title=International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination )〕 Historically, racism was a major driving force behind the Transatlantic slave trade.〔Fredrickson, George M. 1988. The arrogance of race: historical perspectives on slavery, racism, and social inequality. Middletown, Conn: Wesleyan University Press〕 It was also a major force behind racial segregation, especially in the United States in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries and South Africa under apartheid; 19th and 20th century racism in Western culture is particularly well documented and constitutes a reference point in studies and discourses about racism. Racism has played a role in genocides such as the Holocaust, the Armenian genocide, and colonial projects like the European colonization of the Americas, Africa, and Asia. Indigenous peoples have been –and are– often subject to racist attitudes. Practices and ideologies of racism are condemned by the United Nations in the Declaration of Human Rights.〔UN General Assembly, ''Universal Declaration of Human Rights'', 10 December 1948, 217 A (III), available at: () (18 July 2012 )〕 == Etymology == In the 19th century, some scientists subscribed to the belief that the human population is divided into races, that some races were inferior to others, and that differential treatment of races was consequently justified. Such theories are generally termed scientific racism. Today, most biologists, anthropologists, and sociologists reject a taxonomy of races in favor of more specific and/or empirically verifiable criteria, such as geography, ethnicity, or a history of endogamy. The updated entry in the Oxford English Dictionary (2008) defines racialism simply as "An earlier term than racism, but now largely superseded by it," and cites it in a 1902 quote.〔"racialism, n.". (OED Online ). September 2013. Oxford University Press. (Accessed December 03, 2013).〕 The revised Oxford English Dictionary cites the shortened term "racism" in a quote from the following year, 1903.〔"racism, n.". (OED Online ). September 2013. Oxford University Press. (Accessed December 03, 2013).〕〔The term "racism" was used as the title of a 1930s book, and possibly coined, by sexologist and homosexual activist Magnus Hirschfeld.〕 It was first defined by the ''OED'' as "()he theory that distinctive human characteristics and abilities are determined by race", which gives 1936 as the first recorded use. Additionally, the OED records ''racism'' as a synonym of ''racialism'': "belief in the superiority of a particular race". By the end of World War II, ''racism'' had acquired the same supremacist connotations formerly associated with ''racialism'': ''racism'' now implied racial discrimination, racial supremacism and a harmful intent. (The term "race hatred" had also been used by sociologist Frederick Hertz in the late 1920s.) 抄文引用元・出典: フリー百科事典『 ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』 ■ウィキペディアで「racism」の詳細全文を読む スポンサード リンク
|